Ren� Descartes And Immanuel Kants Theory Of Knowledge

In 18th century Europe, philosophers widely sought after knowledge. More specifically, they sought after the knowledge of how knowledge might be found. Two main philosophies stood in opposition: rationalism and empiricism (Sproul 117). Immanuel Kant, a revolutionary philosopher from East Prussia, endeavored to create a synthesis of the two philosophies (119). This synthesis illustrated a process by which knowledge might be obtained through both ways illustrated in the two philosophies. This synthesis, as well as much of Kant’s work, was widely influential as well as controversial, leaving philosophers throughout history to debate whether or not he was successful in this endeavor. Oxford Dictionaries defines rationalism, in reference to†¦show more content†¦Kant opposed rationalist’s reluctance to adapt their philosophies to incorporate the discoveries made through empirical evidence and empiricist’s skepticism of the possibility of scientific knowledge (Sproul 120). Thus, Kant created his synthesis. Kant’s synthesis included both knowledge through experience (a posteriori knowledge) and knowledge prior to experience (a priori knowledge). Through this synthesis, Kant reasserts some aspects of both philosophies and denies others. Regarding rationalism, Kant reasserts the belief in a priori knowledge, thus denying the empiricists’ denial of such knowledge (Sproul 121). He asserts that knowledge requires both a posteriori knowledge acquired through the senses and a priori knowledge that the mind employs to categorize and make sense of sensations. Through what Kant refers to as pure intuitions of time and space, one may understand how their sensations fit into time and space, which, as Kant asserts, cannot be perceived directly. This he calls apperception. Sproul succinctly explains this saying â€Å"It is the mind that provides unity to the diversity of my sensory experience.† (121). However, Kant denies that a pr iori knowledge might extend past this and reasserts the empiricist belief that the collaborative process knowledge does begin with experience (121-122). As with the vast

There is No Perfect Government, No Utopia Essay - 2077 Words

From the early stages of civilization men created a form of government to help bring order to society. One of the greatest philosophers Thomas Hobbes believed that men left in their natural state is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short; however, for men to obtain peace they must renounce their freedom to a form of government to gain freedom. (Hobbes, 1865 ) The government has shaped many civilizations, and brought many changes to each new civilization. Throughout history one can observe many forms of government, some government systems brought peace and prosperity to the states while others brought destruction, war, and famine which can be seen in Ancient Greek and Rome. The question then arises, what there a perfect†¦show more content†¦Athens was a civilization which prospered and exerted influence to other city-states, they focused on philosophy and education rather than military. Nevertheless, despite Athens Golden Age, there were many flaws in the government syst em, women, children, slaves and resident aliens were not considered citizens, and since everyone had a say in democracy, the Athens lacked professional civil service. The Politics and the judiciary in Athens remained under the influence of people of wealth and venal judges presided at courts of law marked by corruption and perjury. (Frank, 2009) Eventually, the Athenian government system failed to overpower their enemy in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta, and Athens was defeated. Sparta however was the fearsome polis in Ancient Greek. Unlike Athens, Sparta was a mixed constitution of democracy, monarchy and oligarchy. As unlikely as it seems, Sparta had one of the best functional government in the Ancient World. The Spartan government consisted of two kings, the Ephors, the council of Elders, and Demos which was an assembly of men over the age of thirty. (Mathisen, 2012) This form of government made sure that there was no corruption in the government, and during the time of warfare one king was on the battlefield while the other ruled the people. Sparta however was a military based civilization with two social groups, Spartan citizens and Helots (slaves); unlike Athens, SpartanShow MoreRelatedUtopia is defined as a place of ideal perfection especially in laws, government, and social1000 Words   |  4 PagesUtopia is defined as a place of ideal perfection especially in laws, government, and social conditions, (merriam-webster.com). Utopia is a mindset that p eople are conditioned to believe is achievable, when in actuality it isn’t. 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Business and Corporation Law The Lead Common

Question: Describe about the Business and Corporation Law for The Lead Common. Answer: Australian Securities and Investments Commission v Rich [2009] NSWSC 1229 Case Introduction This case was the leading common matters in the NSW Supreme Court record in which the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) indicted Jodee Rich and Mark Silbermann, the ex- official managers of One.Tel telecommunications corporation, of having unsuccessful to convene their obligation of concern in the time foremost up to the corporations fall down which took place in the year 2001. The Lawful procedure darted for almost 9 years, which was done in 232 sitting time. In November 2009, Robert Austin, who was the NSW Supreme Court Justice, broadly discharged ASIC's matter against the Rich and Silbermann, stating that the commercial supervisory body had been unsuccessful to demonstrate any facet of its appealed matter in opposition to either of the respondents. A long anticipated verdict of this case was delivered by the Judge on 18th November 2016, in the drawn out an assertion which was made by the ASIC against the directors of the currently redundant corporation One.Tel for contraventions of their obligations of care and diligence being directors. In a dramatic drive to the supervisors, the adjudicator who ruled against ASIC on all the facets of its assertions. Facts of the Case One.Tel was a supplier of GSM cell phone and long distance calls services which was created by Rich with an investor, James Packer in the state in 1995 (Jacobson, 2009). The organization enlarged its functions abroad in 1998, Packers issuing distribution and News Corporation made a $600 million speculation in the trades as it was dedicated to construct Australias fourth cell phone system. The corporation nurtured to be converted into the fourth major Australian Telco with 3 million workers, working in 7 states. In the year 2001, ASIC took trials against 3 of the ex- directors and the non-executive chairman of the currently defunct corporation i.e. One.Tel Limited and its pertinent subordinate corporations. ASIC suspected that the officials had violated their obligation of care and due diligence which has been mentioned under section 180(1) of the Corporations Act, 2001 (Cth) by fading to reveal the organizations factual economic arrangement to the panel and to the marketplace over a 5 months time from January to May 2001 (Milamn, 2013). The procedures were formerly suspended in the year 2003 and 2004 against the directors and the officers subsequent resolution contracts which efficiently restricted those executives from potential authority for a definite time and apprehended them legally responsible to compensate numerous sum of reimbursements to the corporation. ASIC preserved the measures through a marathon investigation by the cooperative principal directors and officers of the Organization. Outline the duties/responsibilities (eg CA s. 181) breached and explain why the duties were breached ASICs case The exclusive assertion which was appealed by ASIC against the respondents was a contravention of the obligation of care and diligence under section 180(1) of the Act (Clarke Branson, 2012). This section grants that an organization must implement their authorities and fulfill their obligations with the amount of concern and carefulness that a sensible individual would put into effect if they: Were a manager or official of a organization in the organizations situation, and Engaged the place of work apprehended by, and had the similar errands within the organization as a manager or executive (Edelman, 2012). Directors must formulate self-governing and knowledgeable conclusions. In accumulation, they could not assert lack of knowledge of the corporations dealings, if the unawareness was of their own creation. In this consideration, it has been suspected by ASIC that the respondents have violated section 180(1) by, among other things, confusing the board about the correct economic situation of the corporation. In connection to the supposed violations, ASIC required the subsequent assistance which has been mentioned below such as: Civil punishments, comprising of prohibition of the commands which were averting the respondents from holding prospect corporation authority; and Reimbursement in the sum of $92 million for the creditors of the corporation for harms assumed to have come out from the supposed violations by the respondents of their obligations of due care and diligence (C D). More predominantly, ASIC assumed that the respondents deceive the panel and the marketplace in relation to the accurate monetary place of the organization transversely a comprehensive time in 2001. That intended that the tribunal was obligatory to believe the economic situation of the organization, and the committee of which it was a section, in order to decide if the respondents had contravened their particular obligations (Foglia Bassingthwaite, 2009). The defence The justification paid attention on ASICs breakdown to show its matter as an appealed one. The respondents also depended deeply on the business judgment rule (BJR) which was integrated in section 180(2) of the Act. The regulation grants a justification, where all of the profitable verdicts were prepared as long as there was a coherent faith that the BJ was in the finest welfare of the corporation. An executives obligation of concern which was defined under section 180(1) of the Act was an intended sensible individual standard. As per the adjudicator, the intended standard in the matter of a decision-making official or managerial director has observance to the acquaintance and proficiency of individuals in the same predictable profession as the individual who was charged with infringement and as a result of which alternative may be taken as the proof of the knowledgeable individuals who have engaged same workplaces (Legg Jordan, 2014). Business Judgment Rule The BJR, incorporated in section 180(2) of the Act, fundamentally grants a justification to an assumed violation of section 180(1) (Hooper, 2011) in situations where the manager or executive has completed any verdict to acquire or not obtain accomplishment in reverence of a case appropriate to the trade processes of the organization in connection to which the manager or executive has contented the subsequent four constituents such as (Morrison, 2012): 1) The verdict has been granted in excellent conviction for an appropriate objective; 2) The manager or executive does not have a substance private awareness in the theme issue of the ruling; 3) The manager or executive official has learned by their own about the subject matter of the verdict to the amount they rationally consider to be proper; and 4) The manager or the executive sensibly consider that the ruling was in the finest welfare of the organization (Lumsden, 2010). The judgment granted by the adjudicator which grants a comprehensive study of the above essentials of the rule. Discuss and critically ANALYSE the court/tribunal decision and the reason for the decision in view of the Corporations Act. The judgment The adjudicators have established a decision against ASIC on all the features of its matter and approved the decision for the respondents. In his delivered verdict, he has thoroughly examined the pertinent details and the law sustaining the verdict in support of the respondents (Thomson Playford Cutlers, 2016). So, the basis of the judgment could be concisely recapitulated from the subsequent extract of the pronouncement which states that: ASICs arguments have a apparent request, but again and again they were publicized to be not credible when the fundamental monetary particulars were examined.  As an alternative, the judges offer to center on two specific facets of the verdict which were probable to be of awareness to Directors Officers (DO) insurers going onward, specifically: The condemnation of ASICs treatment of the matter; and The examination of the BJR which was done by the Judges (Australian Institute of Company Directors, 2010). Both of above mentioned issues may assist in order to outline the potential course of ASICs enforcement actions. The Judge also accomplished that the burden of confirming the above mentioned four rudiments of the BJR respites on the respondent. In connection to this constituent of the rule, the adjudicator has made the subsequent explanations: The succeeding terms, to the amount they rationally suppose to be proper, express the scheme that security could be obtainable even if the manager was not conscious of obtainable data important to the verdict, if he sensibly supposed that he had initiated suitable steps on the managerial instance to notify about the case (Tesarch, and Tiller, 2010). ASIC challenged that the terms of a balanced faith which should be associated with a practical trust. The tribunal discarded that deference as such an elucidation would turn into the BJR useless as the coherent conviction constituent would be contented in situations where there was a sensible faith, in which matter there would be no violation of the s 180(1) sensible individual obligation of C D. As an alternative, the tribunal accomplished that the lucid faith constituent of the regulation was contented if the proof depicts that the respondent supposed that his or her verdict was in the best benefit of the organization, and that faith was sustained by a logical procedure which was adequate to guarantee recounting it as a balanced conviction, as defined, whether or not the interpretation procedure was independently a compelling one.  In further sense, the BJR has genuine job to conduct something in that the coherent credence way was an inferior way than the purpose sensible individual way of the obligation of C D. It would be very soon to tell if ASIC aims to make a request against the ruling. However, there were clear instruction which ASIC would likely be averted from this matter. In specific, it would be expected that ASIC in the expectations time would try to constrict the range of its enforceable actions to a meticulous infringement at a specific position in time in order to avert the considerable issues which have proof, with which it could be stumbled upon as a consequence of the width of this matter. Such a growth would no suspicion be entertained by DO insurers as this could affect in proceedings expenses which would be low in civil penalty proceedings such as the costs which were resulted in this case. DO insurers and their insureds may also observe the some relieve in the unrestrained investigation of the business judgment rule which was done by the tribunal. The verdict verifies that managers and the executives have the prospective to dispute that profitable verdicts have been attached with a normal conviction, which would remain logical. Lastly, it would be expected that the ASIC would continue the tendency of following enforceable accomplishments as an option to expensive civil punishment dealings. In his pronouncement, the tribunal has remarked that: One of the unreciprocated queries which were established in this case was if One.Tel would have endured that, the News had preserved their sustenance for the organization and put into practice their arrangement in order to guarantee an extremely economical privilege problem to elevate $132 million. The departure of that sustenance, and the desertion of the privilege problems, may well have guarantee that the corporation could not subsist (Murray, 2009).  The balance sheet holders of the corporation must raise a voice on if the reason of the disintegration could be accredited unswervingly to those connected with the extraction of sustenance for the privilege problem, or whether those verdicts which were founded on deceptive data which was attained from the organization itself. Conclusion So, at the end the trial accomplished on 18 November 2009 that ASIC had been unsuccessful in each facet of their matter, abortive to name key spectators and embroidered the outcome of proof or deceitfully took passage of proof out of the framework. It was also determined that ASIC's review of Mr Rich's proof in the spectator box was erroneous (Paolini, 2014). The tribunal, in the judgment, granted the primary complete sensible scrutiny of the constitutional business judgment resistance which was mentioned in s 180(2) of the Corporations Act 2001 (Plessis, et al., 2014). During the matter, the High Court also has made new regulations concerning the practical privileges of the respondent in civil penalty proceedings. The innovative law affirmed that in such matters, ASIC prohibiting commands were to be measured penal in character, rather than safeguarded and as such, any ineligibility from ASIC which could now be measured unauthorized. So, in 2003, the NSW Supreme Court passed a verdict which identified that under some situations, the main person of the panel who sustains exceptional tasks above those of the non-executive managers as, this conclusion was the consequence of a request concern by ex- One.Tel chairman during the matter. References Australian Institute of Company Directors. (2010). Directors Counsel Time for a revised business judgement rule. Retrieved on 25th November 2016 from: https://www.companydirectors.com.au/director-resource-centre/publications/company-director-magazine/2010-back-editions/february-2010/february/directors-counsel-time-for-a-revised-business-judgement-rule Clarke, T. Branson, D. (2012). The SAGE Handbook of Corporate Governance. SAGE. Corporations and Markets Advisory Committee. (2010). Guidance for Directors. Retrieved on 25th November 2016 from: https://www.camac.gov.au/camac/camac.nsf/byheadline/pdffinal+reports+2010/$file/guidance_for_directors_report_april2010.pdf Edelman, J. (2012). DIRECTORS AND FIDUCIARY DUTIES: THE STORY OF NOCTON V LORD ASHBURTON. Retrieved on 25th November 2016 from: https://www.supremecourt.wa.gov.au/_files/Directors_and_Fiduciary_Duties_20120523.pdf Foglia, M. Bassingthwaite, R. (2009). ASIC Unable To Reel In The Rich Australian Securities Investments Commission V Rich. Retrieved on 25th November 2016 from: https://www.wottonkearney.com.au/asic-unable-reel-rich-australian-securities-investments-commission-v-rich/ Hooper, M. (2011). The Business Judgment Rule: ASIC v Rich and the reasonable-rational divide. Retrieved on 25th November 2016 from: https://epublications.bond.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021context=cgej Jacobson, D.(2009). ASIC V RICH: ASIC One.Tel case against Rich and Silbermann dismissed. Retrieved on 25th November 2016 from: https://www.brightlaw.com.au/asic-v-rich-asic-onetel-case-against-rich-and-silbermann-dismissed/ Legg, M. Jordan, D. (2014). The Australian Business Judgment Rule after ASIC v. Rich: Balancing Director Authority and Accountability. Adelaide Law Review, Vol. 34, No. 2. Lumsden, A. (2010). The Business Judgement Defence - Insights from ASIC v. Rich. Companies and Securities Law Journal, Vol. 28, No. 3. Milamn, D.(2013). Governance of Distressed Firms. Edward Elgar Publishing. Morrison, D. (2012). DIRECTORS LIABILITY FOR INSOLVENT TRADING, STATUTORY FORGIVENESS AND LAW REFORM. Retrieved on 25th November 2016 from: https://sydney.edu.au/lec/subjects/insolvency/Winter%202012/Morrison%20article.pdf Murray, M. (2009). ASIC V RICH - NOTICE OF INTENTION TO APPEAL BY ASIC. Retrieved on 25th November 2016 from: https://www.arita.com.au/news-view/2009/11/03/asic-v-rich---notice-of-intention-to-appeal-by-asic-755 Paolini, A. (2014). Research Handbook on Directors Duties. Edward Elgar Publishing. Plessis, J.J. D., Hargovan, A., Bagaric, M., Harris, J. (2014). Principles of Contemporary Corporate Governance. Cambridge University Press. Tesarch, J. and Tiller, J. (2010). Australia: Corporate Regulator Fails Against One.Tel Directors: ASIC v Rich. Retrieved on 25th November 2016 from: https://www.mondaq.com/australia/x/106686/Corporate+Governance/Corporate+Regulator+Fails+Against+OneTel+Directors+ASIC+v+Rich Thomson Playford Cutlers. (2016). Directors and Officers Alert December 2009. Retrieved on 25th November 2016 from: https://www.tglaw.com.au/wp-content/uploads/awms/Upload/Files/Alert%20-%20DO%20-%20OneTel%20-%20December%202009.pdf